Sociology : The Demographic Structure Of Indian Society (CHAPTER 2)

Q1.What is “Demography”?

Ans. Demography, a systematic study of population, is a Greek term derived from two words ‘demos’ (people) and graphein (describe) description of people. it studies births, deaths, migration, sex composition etc.

Q2. What is the difference between formal and social demography?

Ans.

Formal demography which is concerned with quantitative measurement and analysis of population change.

Social demography which deals with social, economic and political aspects of population.

3. State & critically analyze the Malthusian theory of population change.

Ans. Thomas Robert Malthus argued that human populations tend to grow at a much faster rate than the rate at which the means of human subsistence (specially food, but also clothing and other agriculture-based products) can grow. Therefore, humanity is condemned to live in poverty forever because the growth of agricultural production will always be overtaken by population growth. While population rises in geometric progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 etc.), agricultural production can only grow in arithmetic progression (i.e., like 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 etc.). Because population growth always outstrips growth in production of subsistence resources, the only way to increase prosperity is by controlling the growth of population.

However, the most effective refutation of his theory was provided by the historical experience of European countries. The pattern of population growth began to change in the latter half of nineteenth century, and by the end of the first quarter of the twentieth century these changes were quite dramatic. Birth rates had declined, and outbreaks of epidemic diseases were being controlled. Malthus’s predictions were proved false because both food production and standards of living continued to rise despite the rapid growth of population. Malthus was also criticised by liberal and Marxist scholars for asserting that poverty was caused by population growth. The critics argued that problems like poverty and starvation were caused by the unequal distribution of economic resources rather than by population growth.

Q4. What checks did Malthus talk about?

Ans. According to Malthus, there were two types of checks to control population:

1.       Preventive checks such as postponing marriage or practicing sexual abstinence or celibacy.

2.       Positive checks to population growth – in the form of famines and diseases. They were nature’s way of dealing with the imbalance between food supply and increasing population.

Q5. Explain the theory of Demographic Transition.

Ans.  This theory suggests that population growth is linked to overall levels of economic development and that every society follows a typical pattern of development related population growth.

1.       STAGE 1: Underdeveloped Countries

·         Low population Growth

·         High Birth rate

·         High death rate

·         Underdeveloped technology

For Example: Bangladesh

2.       STAGE 2: Developing Countries

·         High Birth rate

·         Low death rate

·         Advancements in medical facilities and technology

·         Illiteracy & poverty

For Example: India

3.       STAGE 3: Developed Countries

·         Low Death Rate

·         Low Birth rate

·         Advance technology

·         Literate population

·         Eradication of poverty

For Example, USA, UK.

Q6. What is population explosion?

Ans. Population explosion happens because death rates are brought down relatively quickly through advanced methods of disease control, public health, and better nutrition. However, it takes longer for society to adjust to change and alter its reproductive behaviour (which was evolved during the period of poverty and high death rates) to suit the new situation of relative prosperity and longer life spans.

Q7. Why is lowest child sex ratios are found in the most prosperous regions of India?

Ans. It is striking that the lowest child sex ratios are found in the most prosperous regions of India. Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, Gujarat and Maharashtra are among the richest states of India in terms of per capita incomes, and they are also the states with the lowest child sex ratios. So the problem of selective abortions is not due to poverty or ignorance or lack of resources. For example, if practices like dowry mean that parents have to make large dowry payments to marry off their daughters, then prosperous parents would be the ones most able to afford this. However, we find the sex ratio is lowest in the most prosperous regions.

It is also possible (though this issue is still being researched) that as economically prosperous families decide to have fewer children – often only one or two now – they may also wish to choose the sex of their child. This becomes possible with the availability of ultra-sound technology, although the government has passed strict laws banning this practice and imposing heavy fines and imprisonment as punishment.

Q8. Why is India unable to reap the benefits of enjoying a demographic dividend?

Ans. The demographic advantage or ‘dividend’ to be derived from the age structure of the population is due to the fact that India is (and will remain for some time) one of the youngest countries in the world.

The ‘demographic dividend’ results from an increase in the proportion of workers relative to non-workers in the population.

India is unable to reap the benefits because it lacks education, employment, health facilities, etc. This potential can be converted into actual growth only if the rise in the working age group is accompanied by increasing levels of education and employment. If the new entrants to the labour force are not educated then their productivity remains low. If they remain unemployed, then they are unable to earn at all and become dependents rather than earners. Thus, changing age structure by itself cannot guarantee any benefit to the country.

Q9. How does variation of literacy rates across gender, across regions, and across social groups reflect about society at large?

Ans. Literacy as a prerequisite to education is an instrument of empowerment. The more literate the population the greater the consciousness of career options, as well as participation in the knowledge economy. Further, literacy can lead to health awareness and fuller participation in the cultural and economic well being of the community.

GENDER:

The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels.

SOCIAL GROUPS:

Literacy rates also vary by social group – historically disadvantaged communities like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have lower rates of literacy, and rates of female literacy within these groups are even lower.

REGIONS:

Regional variations are still very wide, with states like Kerala approaching universal literacy, while states like Bihar are lagging far behind.

The inequalities in the literacy rate are especially important because they tend to reproduce inequality across generations. Illiterate parents are at a severe disadvantage in ensuring that their children are well educated, thus perpetuating existing inequalities.

Q10. Why was there widespread opposition to National Family Planning during emergency? How was it reorganised post emergency?

Ans. The Family Planning Programme suffered a setback during the years of the National Emergency (1975-76). Normal parliamentary and legal procedures were suspended during this time and special laws and ordinances issued directly by the government (without being passed by Parliament) were in force. During this time, the government tried to intensify the effort to bring down the growth rate of population by introducing a coercive programme of mass sterilisation. Here sterilisation refers to medical procedures like vasectomy (for men) and tubectomy (for women) which prevent conception and childbirth. Vast numbers of mostly poor and powerless people were forcibly sterilised and there was massive pressure on lower level government officials (like school teachers or office workers) to bring people for sterilisation in the camps that were organised for this purpose. There was widespread popular opposition to this programme, and the new government elected after the Emergency abandoned it.

The National Family Planning Programme was renamed as the National Family Welfare Programme after the Emergency, and coercive methods were no longer used. The programme now has a broad-based set of socio-demographic objectives.

Definitions:

1.   Birth rate: number of live births in a given area during a given time per 1000 population.
2.   Death rate: number of deaths in a given area during a given time per 1000 population.
3.  Growth rate/rate of natural increase - difference between birth rate and death rate.
4.    Fertility rate : number of live birth per 1000 women in the child bearing age group of 15-49 years.
5.    Infant mortality rate: number of death of babies before the age of one year per 1000 live births.
6.    Maternal mortality: number of women dying in child birth per 1000 live birth.
7.  Sex ratio: number of females per 1000 males in a given area at a specified time period.
8.  Age structure of population - proportion of persons in different age groups relative to total population.
9.  Dependency ratio: proportion of dependents (elderly and people children) with working age group (ie 15 - 64years).
10.   When the difference is zero (or, in practice, very small) then we say that the population has ‘stabilised’, or has reached the ‘replacement level’, which is the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out.
11.   Life expectancy: it refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to survive.